High School Science Investigation and Experimentation Standard
Questions at the end of standards-based textbook readings and/or activities cited in the right-hand column after each standard/benchmark can be considered as potential standards based assessment questions for quarter "mid-terms" or semester "end-of-term" finals.· YELLOW is used to draw attention to core instructional vocabulary. BLUE is used to draw attention to instructional "experiences" that students should have. GREEN is used to draw attention to expected student opportunities (some requiring the application student initiated metacognitive skills) based on state framework suggestions. RED is used to draw attention to issues that might affect the scope and sequence of how the standard based material is presented. PINK is used to draw attentions to items that can be used for "cross-curricular" integration of "Language Arts" standard-based items. GRAY is used to draw attentions to items that can be used for "cross-curricular" integration of "Mathematics" standard-based items. Notations like "Q 2" beside a standard or benchmark mean that the standard or benchmark in question will be covered during the 2nd Quarter. L means late in the quarter and E means early in the quarter. The "Content Standard Summary " and annotations after each standard and benchmark are from the California Science Framework . A * benchmark means it is not considered an "Essential Standard" ((Standards considered "essential" are those that are included in the state CST blueprint for a given subject area test). "(13% - 8 items) " means that 13% or 8 questions on the HS Life Sciences CSS CRT have been written using framework descriptions for this standard and its benchmarks (Bio/LS CST Blueprint, 2005) NE - Considered a Non-Essential Standard (Standards considered "essential" are those that are included in the state CST blueprint for a given subject area test)- Resources used:
Course: Introduction to the Principle of BiologyText: Biology: The Dynamics of Life, Glencoe McGraw-Hill, 2002Criteria: California Science Content Standard for High School Life Sciences/ BiologyMetacognition: means "thinking about thinking". Metacognition refers to higher order thinking involving the "learners" active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. It entails planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring their personal comprehension, and evaluating their progress toward the completion of that task. Put simply, metacognition is a buzzword in educational psychology for thinking before doing something. Metacognitive strategies are memorable plans or approaches that students use to problem-solve. These strategies include the student’s thinking as well as their physical actions. Common metacognitive strategies include: mnemonics, in the form of easy to remember phrases or through pictures that are easy to recall, asking for clarification, etc.
- Q 2 |
g. -the role of the mitochondria in making stored chemical bond energy available to cells by completing the breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide. |
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Mitochondria consist of a matrix where three-carbon fragments originating from carbohydrates are broken down (to CO2 and water) and of the cristae where ATP is produced. Cell respiration occurs in a series of reactions in which fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, mostly glucose, are broken down to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Most of the energy from cell respiration is converted into ATP, a substance that powers most cell activities. |
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- Q 1 - 2 |
h. most macromolecules (polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins, lipids) in cells and organisms are synthesized from a small collection of simple precursors. |
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Many of the large carbon compound molecules necessary for life (e.g., polysaccharides, nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids) are polymers of smaller monomers. Polysaccharides are composed of monosaccharides; proteins are composed of amino acids; lipids are composed of fatty acids, glycerol, and other components; and nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides. |
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NE- Q 1 - 2 |
i.* how chemiosmotic gradients in the mitochondria and chloroplast store energy for ATP production. |
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Enzymes called ATP synthase, located within the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts and cristae membranes in mitochondria, synthesize most ATP within cells. The thylakoid and cristae membranes are impermeable to protons (H+) except at pores that are coupled with the ATP synthase. The potential energy of the proton concentration gradient drives ATP synthesis as the protons move through the ATP synthase pores. The proton gradient is established by energy furnished by a flow of electrons (e-) passing through the electron transport system located within these membranes. |
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NE- Q 1 - 2 |
j* how eukaryotic cells are given shape and internal organization by a cytoskeleton and/or cell wall. |
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The cytoskeleton, which gives shape to and organizes eukaryotic cells, is composed of fine protein threads called microfilaments and thin protein tubes called microtubules. Cilia and flagella are composed of microtubules arranged in the 9 + 2 arrangement, in which nine pairs of microtubules surround two single microtubules. The rapid assembly and disassembly of microtubules and microfilaments and their capacity to slide past one another enable cells to move, as observed in white blood cells and amoebae, and also account for movement of organelles within the cell. Students can observe prepared slides of plant mitosis in an onion root tip to see the microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus. Prepared slides of white fish blastula reveal animal spindle apparatus and centrioles, both of which are composed of microtubules. |
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Students should know that organisms reproduce offspring of their own kind (specific biogenesis) and that organisms of the same species resemble each other. Students have been introduced to the idea that some characteristics can be passed from parents to offspring and that individual variations appear among offspring and in the broader population. Understanding genetic variation requires mastery of the fundamentals of sex cell formation and the steps to reorganize and redistribute genetic material during defined stages in the cell cycle. Students should understand the difference between asexual cell reproduction (mitosis) and the formation of male or female gamete cells (meiosis). Sexual reproduction initially requires the production of haploid eggs and haploid sperm, a process occurring in humans within the female ovary and the male testis. These haploid cells unite in fertilization and produce the diploid zygote, or fertilized cell. The mechanisms involved in synapsis and movement of chromosomes during meiosis bring about the halving of the chromosome numbers for the production of the haploid male or female gamete cells from the original diploid parent cell and different combinations of parental genes. The exchange of chromosomal segments between homologous chromosomes (crossing over) revises the association of genes on the chromosomes and contributes to increased diversity. Any change in genetic constitution through mutation, crossing over, or chromosome assortment during meiosis promotes genetic variation in a population. |
Chapter and section Numbers (For Biology: The Dynamics of Life, 2002, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill) |
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Genetics (30% of CST, 18 items) - Q 2, 3 [ 6 items] 2. Mutation and sexual reproduction lead to genetic variation in a population. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know: |
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- Q 2L - 3 |
a. meiosis is an early step in sexual reproduction in which the pairs of chromosomes separate and segregate randomly during cell division to produce gametes containing one chromosome of each type |
Chapter 10.2 BioDigest 369 |
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Haploid gamete production through meiosis involves two cell divisions. During meiosis prophase I, the homologous chromosomes are paired, a process that abets the exchange of chromosome parts through breakage and reunion. The second meiotic division parallels the mechanics of mitosis except that this division is not preceded by a round of DNA replication; therefore, the cells end up with the haploid number of chromosomes. (The nucleus in a haploid cell contains one set of chromosomes.) Four haploid nuclei are produced from the two divisions that characterize meiosis, and each of the four resulting cells has different chromosomal constituents (components). In the male all four become sperm cells. In the female only one becomes an egg, while the other three remain small degenerate polar bodies and cannot be fertilized. Chromosome models can be constructed and used to illustrate the segregation taking place during the phases of mitosis (covered initially in Standard 1.e for grade seven in Chapter 4) and meiosis. Commercially available optical microscope slides also show cells captured in mitosis (onion root tip) or meiosis (Ascaris blastocyst cells), and computer and video animations are also available. |
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- Q 2L - 3E |
b. - only certain cells in a multicellular organism undergo meiosis |
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Only special diploid cells, called spermatogonia in the testis of the male and oogonia in the female ovary, undergo meiotic divisions to produce the haploid sperm and haploid eggs. |
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- Q 2L - 3E |
c. -how random chromosome segregation explains the probability that a particular allele will be in a gamete. |
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The steps in meiosis involve random chromosome segregation, a process that accounts for the probability that a particular allele will be packaged in any given gamete. This process allows for genetic predictions based on laws of probability that pertain to genetic sortings. Students can create a genetic chart (Punnett Square(s)) and mark alternate traits on chromosomes, one expression coming from the mother and another expression coming from the father. Students can be shown that partitions of the chromosomes are controlled by chance (are random) and that separation (segregation) of chromosomes during karyokinesis (division of the nucleus) leads to the random sequestering of different combinations of chromosomes. |
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- Q 2L - 3E |
d. -new combinations of alleles may be generated in a zygote through fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization). |
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Once gametes are formed, the second half of sexual reproduction can take place. In this process a diploid organism is reconstituted from two haploid parts. When a sperm is coupled with an egg, a fertilized egg (zygote) is produced that contains the combined genotypes of the parents to produce a new allelic composition for the progeny. Genetic charts can be used to illustrate how new combinations of alleles may be present in a zygote through the events of meiosis and the chance union of gametes. Students should be able to read the genetic diploid karyotype, or chromosomal makeup, of a fertilized egg and compare the allelic composition of progeny with the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents. |
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- Q 2L - 3E |
e. -why approximately half of an individual's DNA sequence comes from each parent. |
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Chromosomes are composed of a single, very long molecule of double-stranded DNA and proteins. Genes are defined as segments of DNA that code for polypeptides (proteins). During fertilization half the DNA of the progeny comes from the gamete of one parent, and the other half comes from the gamete of the other parent. |
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- Q 2L |
f. -the role of chromosomes in determining an individual's sex. |
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The normal human somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes, of which 44 are pairs of homologous chromosomes and 2 are sex chromosomes. Females usually carry two X chromosomes, and males possess one X and a smaller Y chromosome. Combinations of these two sex chromosomes determine the sex of the progeny. |
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- Q 3E |
g. -how to predict possible combinations of alleles in a zygote from the genetic makeup of the parents. |
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When the genetic makeups of potential parents are known, the possible assortments of alleles in their gametes can be determined for each genetic locus. Two parental gametes will fuse during fertilization, and with all pair-wise combinations of their gametes considered, the possible genetic makeups of progeny can then be predicted. |
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Breeding of plants and animals has been an active technology for thousands of years, but the science of heredity is linked to the genetics pioneer Gregor Mendel. He studied phenotypic traits of various plants, especially those of peas. (A phenotypic trait is the physical appearance of a trait in an organism). From the appearance of these traits in different generations of growth, he was able to infer their genotypes (the genetic makeup of an organism with respect to a trait) and to speculate about the genetic makeup and method of transfer of the hereditary units from one generation to the next. (Probability analysis is now used to predict probable progeny phenotypes from various parental genetic crosses.) The genetic basis for Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment is apparent from genetic outcomes of crosses. |
Chapter and Section Numbers (For Biology: The Dynamics of Life, 2002, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill) |
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- Q 2, 3 [ 3 items] 3. A multicellular organism develops from a single zygote, and its phenotype depends on its genotype, which is established at fertilization. As a basis for understanding this concept, students know: |
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- Q 3 |
a. - how to predict the probable outcome of phenotypes in a genetic cross from the genotypes of the parents and mode of inheritance (autosomal or X-linked, dominant or recessive). |
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Monohybrid crosses, including autosomal dominant alleles, autosomal recessive alleles, incomplete dominant alleles, and X-linked alleles, can be used to indicate the parental genotypes and phenotypes. The possible gametes derived from each parent are based on genotypic ratios and can be used to predict possible progeny. The predictive (probabilistic) methods for determining the outcome of genotypes and phenotypes in a genetic cross can be introduced by using Punnett Squares and probability mathematics. Teachers should review the process of writing genotypes and help students translate genotypes into phenotypes. Teachers should emphasize dominant, recessive, and incomplete dominance as the students advance to an explanation of monohybrid crosses illustrating human conditions characterized by autosomal recessive alleles, such as albinism, cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs, and phenylketonuria (PKU). These disorders can be contrasted with those produced by possession of just one autosomal dominant allele, conditions such as Huntington disease, dwarfism, and neurofibromatosis. This basic introduction can be followed with examples of incomplete dominance, such as seen in the comparisons of straight, curly, and wavy hair or in the expression of intermediate flower colors in snapdragon plants. Sex-linked characteristics that are found only on the X chromosome should also be considered, and students should reflect on how this mode of transmission can cause the exclusive or near exclusive appearance in males of color blindness, hemophilia, fragile-X syndrome, and sex-linked muscular dystrophy. |
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- Q 3 |
b. -the genetic basis for Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. |
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Mendel deduced that for each characteristic, an organism inherits two genes, one from each parent. When the two alleles differ, the dominant allele is expressed, and the recessive allele remains hidden. Two genes or alleles separate (segregate) during gamete production in meiosis, resulting in the sorting of alleles into separate gametes (the law of segregation). Students can be shown how to diagram Mendel's explanation for how a trait present in the parental generation can appear to vanish in the first filial (F1) generation of a monohybrid cross and then reappear in the following second filial (F2) generation. Students should be told that alternate versions of a gene at a single locus are called alleles. Students should understand Mendel's deduction that for each character, an organism inherits two genes, one from each parent. From this point students should realize that if the two alleles differ, the dominant allele, if there is one, is expressed, and the recessive allele remains hidden. Students should recall that the two genes, or alleles, separate (segregate) during gamete production in meiosis and that this sorting of alleles into separate gametes is the basis for the law of segregation. This law applies most accurately when genes reside on separate chromosomes that segregate out at random, and it often does not apply or is a poor predictor for combinations and frequencies of genes that reside on the same chromosome. Students can study various resources that describe Mendel's logic and build models to illustrate the laws of segregation and independent assortment. |
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NE- Q 3 |
c.* -how to predict the probable mode of inheritance from a pedigree diagram showing phenotypes. |
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Students should be taught how to use a pedigree diagram showing phenotypes to predict the mode of inheritance. |
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NE-Not addressed |
d.* - how to use data on frequency of recombination at meiosis to estimate genetic distances between loci, and to interpret genetic maps of chromosomes. |
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Students should be able to interpret genetic maps of chromosomes and manipulate genetic data by using standard techniques to relate recombination at meiosis to estimate genetic distances between loci. |
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- Q 1 - 3 |
a. - the general pathway by which ribosomes synthesize proteins, using tRNAs to translate genetic information in mRNA. |
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DNA does not leave the cell nucleus, but messenger RNA (mRNA), complementary to DNA, carries encoded information from DNA to the ribosomes (transcription) in the cytoplasm. (The ribosomes translate mRNAs to make protein.) Freely floating amino acids within the cytoplasm are bonded to specific transfer RNAs (tRNAs) that then transport the amino acid to the mRNA now located on the ribosome. As a ribosome moves along the mRNA strand, each mRNA codon, or sequence of three nucleotides (triplet) specifying the insertion of a particular amino acid, is paired in sequence with the anticodon of the tRNA that recognizes the sequence. Each amino acid is added, in turn, to the growing polypeptide at the specified position. After learning about transcription and translation through careful study of expository texts, students can simulate the processes on paper or with representative models. Computer software and commercial videos are available that illustrate animated sequences of transcription and translation. |
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- Q 3 |
b. how to apply the genetic coding rules to predict the sequence of amino acids from a sequence of codons in RNA. |
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The sequence of amino acids in protein is provided by the genetic information found in DNA. In prokaryotes, mRNA transcripts of a coding sequence are copied from the DNA as a single contiguous sequence. In eukaryotes, the initial RNA transcript, while in the nucleus, is composed of exons, sequences of nucleotides that carry useful information for protein synthesis, and introns, sequences that do not. Before leaving the nucleus, the initial transcript is processed to remove introns and splice exons together. The processed transcript, then properly called mRNA and carrying the appropriate codon sequence for a protein, is transported from the nucleus to the ribosome for translation. Each mRNA has sequences, called codons, that are decoded three nucleotides at a time. Each codon specifies the addition of a single amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain. A start codon signals the beginning of the sequence of codons to be translated, and a stop codon ends the sequence to be translated into protein. Students can write out mRNA sequences with start and stop codons from a given DNA sequence and use a table of the genetic code to predict the primary sequences of proteins. |
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- Q 3 |
c. -how mutations in the DNA sequence of a gene may or may not affect the expression of the gene, or the sequence of amino acids in an encoded protein. |
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Mutations are permanent changes in the sequence of nitrogen-containing bases in DNA (see Standard 5.a in this section for details on DNA structure and nitrogen bases). Mutations occur when base pairs are incorrectly matched (e.g., A bonded to C rather than A bonded to T) and can, but usually do not, improve the product coded by the gene. Inserting or deleting base pairs in an existing gene can cause a mutation by changing the codon reading frame used by a ribosome. Mutations that occur in somatic, or nongerm, cells are often not detected because they cannot be passed on to offspring. They may, however, give rise to cancer or other undesirable cellular changes. Mutations in the germline can produce functionally different proteins that cause such genetic diseases as Tay-Sachs, sickle cell anemia, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. |
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| - Q 3 |
d. -specialization of cells in multicellular organisms is usually due to different patterns of gene expression rather than to differences of the genes themselves. |
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Gene expression is a process in which a gene codes for a product, usually a protein, through transcription and translation. Nearly all cells in an organism contain the same DNA, but each cell transcribes only that portion of DNA containing the genetic information for proteins required at that specific time by that specific cell. The remainder of the DNA is not expressed. Specific types of cells may produce specific proteins unique to that type of cell. |
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- Q 3 |
e. -proteins can differ from one another in the number and sequence of amino acids. |
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Protein molecules vary from about 50 to 3,000 amino acids in length. The types, sequences, and numbers of amino acids used determine the type of protein produced. |
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NE- Q 2L - 3E |
f.* -why proteins having different amino acid sequences typically have different shapes and chemical properties. |
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The 20 different protein-making amino acids have the same basic structure: an amino group; an acidic (carboxyl) group; and an R, or radical group (Chemistry Standard 10, "Organic and Biochemistry," ). The protein is formed by the amino group of one amino acid linking to the carboxyl group of another amino acid. This bond, called the peptide bond, is repeated to form long molecular chains with the R groups attached along the polymer backbone. The properties of these amino acids vary from one another because of both the order and the chemical properties of these R groups. Typically, the long protein molecule folds on itself, creating a three-dimensional structure related to its function. Structure, for example, may allow a protein to be a highly specific catalyst, or enzyme, able to position and hold other molecules. The R group of an amino acid consists of atoms that may include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, depending on the amino acid. Amino acids containing sulfur sometimes play an important role of cross-linking and stabilizing polymer chains. Because of their various R groups, different amino acids vary in their chemical and physical properties, such as solubility in water, electrical charge, and size. These differences are reflected in the unique structure and function of each type of protein. |
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- Q 1 - 3 |
a. -the general structures and functions of DNA, RNA, and protein. |
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Nucleic acids are polymers composed of monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a five-carbon pentose sugar, a phosphoric acid group, and one of four nitrogen bases. (For DNA these nitrogen bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine.) DNA and RNA differ in a number of major ways. A DNA nucleotide contains a deoxyribose sugar, but RNA contains ribose sugar. The nitrogen bases in RNA are the same as those in DNA except that thymine is replaced by uracil. RNA consists of only one strand of nucleotides instead of two as in DNA. The DNA molecule consists of two strands twisted around each other into a double helix resembling a ladder twisted around its long axis. The outside, or uprights, of the ladder are formed by the two sugar-phosphate backbones. The rungs of the ladder are composed of pairs of nitrogen bases, one extending from each upright. In DNA these nitrogen bases always pair so that T pairs with A, and G pairs with C. This pairing is the reason DNA acts as a template for its own replication. RNA exists in many structural forms, many of which play different roles in protein synthesis. The mRNA form serves as a template during protein synthesis, and its codons are recognized by aminoacylated tRNAs. Protein and rRNA makeup the structure of the ribosome. Proteins are polymers composed of amino acid monomers (Chemistry Standard 10). Different types of proteins function as enzymes and transport molecules, hormones, structural components of cells, and antibodies that fight infection. Most cells in an individual organism carry the same set of DNA instructions but do not use the entire DNA set all the time. Only a small amount of the DNA appropriate to the function of that cell is expressed. Genes are, therefore, turned on or turned off as needed by the cell, and the products coded by these genes are produced only when required. |
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- Q 3 |
b. -how to apply base-pairing rules to explain precise copying of DNA during semi-conservative replication, and transcription of information from DNA into mRNA. |
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Enzymes initiate DNA replication by unzipping, or unwinding, the double helix to separate the two parental strands. Each strand acts as a template to form a complementary daughter strand of DNA. The new daughter strands are formed when complementary new nucleotides are added to the bases of the nucleotides on the parental strands. The nucleotide sequence of the parental strand dictates the order of the nucleotides in the daughter strands. One parental strand is conserved and joins a newly synthesized complementary strand to form the new double helix; this process is called semi-conservative replication. DNA replication is usually initiated by the separation of DNA strands in a small region to make a "replication bubble" in which DNA synthesis is primed. The DNA strands progressively unwind and are replicated as the replication bubble expands, and the two forks of replication move in opposite directions along the chromosome. At each of the diverging replication forks, the strand that is conserved remains a single, continuous "leading" strand, and the other "lagging" complementary strand is made as a series of short fragments that are subsequently repaired and ligated together. Students may visualize DNA by constructing models, and they can simulate semiconservative replication by tracing the synthesis of the leading and lagging strands. The critical principles to teach with this activity are that two doublestranded DNA strands are the product of synthesis, that the process is semiconservative, that the antiparallel orientation of the strands requires repeated reinitiation on the lagging strand, and that the only information used during synthesis is specified by the base-pairing rules. RNA is produced from DNA when a section of DNA (containing the nucleotide sequence required for the production of a specific protein) is transcribed. Only the template side of the DNA is copied. RNA then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm, where protein | ||